Chapter 12: Gender as Social Structure

Our society is organized around gender. Of course, gender is not the sole structure which dictates our lives. Many other groups, organizations, statuses, roles and cultural beliefs work alongside gender to create a societal framework that “adds order and predictability to our private lives" (Newman, 278). Such an organization is known as a social structure, and is quite fundamental to the functioning of society.

But what if this perceived order is truly chaos? What if the structure is the cause of suffering and exploitation? What if the mistreatment of women is the predictable part of society?

The current use of gender as a social structure has proved to have scarring effects on innumerable individuals worldwide. Unfortunately, the social structure which, arguably, allows individuals to thrive and for society to function properly, has allowed for gender inequality to persist for centuries.

Gender, specifically, is a framework through which individuals view society. All individuals within the structure are expected to follow gender's patterned guidelines. If they fail to do so, they may be charged by society with a violation of norms, or be shamed into fulfilling their prescribed role as defined by their genitalia. Though perceptions of gender and its applications in society have undergone changes over the years, it remains a major source of discrimination and hurt.

The subordination of women is one example of the gender inequality entrenched in our society. In fact, the “women's struggle to overcome economic, legal, and social inequality is no less relevant in the 21st century than it was in 1848" (Newman, 407). Patriarchal societies easily outnumber matriarchies, giving men, generally speaking, more privileges and a heightened influence in the world. This world view proves influential on an individual level, yet its reach extends to another degree. An understanding of gender as a social structure sheds light on the workings of modern societies, and how ideas of gender materialize on a global scale.

In viewing society through the framework of gender, it becomes apparent that a number of modern, transnational markets thrive on the basis of gendered lines humankind has created, specifically those which have been reinforced in the US. The two examples below will serve to bolster this line of thought.

Exploitation of Female Labor

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Since the mid 1990's, exports from Southeast Asia have been on the rise. Numerous factories in export processing zones (commonly known as EPZs) throughout the region have been established to meet market demands. The majority of these factories are owned and run by men, who hire young female workers to do unskilled repetitive work for low pay.

These are essentially patriarchal environments wherein gender determines the role an individual plays. “Women make up an estimated 70 percent or more of all EPZ factory workforces; but they are concentrated in the 'unskilled' and 'semi-skilled' job categories, categories which managers, not workers, define and redefine” (culturalsurvival.org).

Hours are long and wages are low. “Many of the girls are younger children of families that already have a son” (Hays, 2008). While families invest in sons and send them to school, females are sent to work in factories to earn money for a dowry. The subordination of women is thus reinforced in all realms of life.

The lists below showcases a number of stereotypes about the female gender and highlights managers' preferences for young females as factory workers (Rig, 1997). From these lists we can gather a better understanding of how a gendered framework can be translated from one society to the next.

• Physiological factors:‘Nimble’ fingers; Dexterity; Light touch
• Psychological factors: Patience; Concentration; Harder working; Passive and docile; Controllable; ‘Slow wit’; Higher boredom threshold
• Socio-cultural factors: Non-political; Less prone to unionization than men; Easier to sack than men;‘Fearful and shy’
• Situational factors: No dependents; No parenting responsibilities.

In the US, compared to men, “women continue to have much less earning power in the labor market” (Newman, 429). Unfortunately, the devaluation of female labor is a global phenomenon. The role gender plays in structuring society has clearly played a large part in determining the demographics of such factories. While the example of female factory workers in Southeast Asia is extreme, it shows the extent to which gender structures society, and how influential such frameworks can be.

Human Trafficking 

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Another prevalent issue in gender inequality is the objectification of women, and expressions of personal sexism in the form of sexual harassment and violence. Female objectification has arisen partially due to dominant cultural ideologies which devalue women “on the basis of alleged biological differences between men and women,” overlooking the role of societal forces (Newman, 437).

The most widespread and arguably most dangerous manifestation of female objectification and sexism is human trafficking for the sex industry. According to the US Department of State, “approximately 80 percent of human trafficking victims are women and girls, and up to 50 percent are minors;” 70% of them are “trafficked into the commercial sex industry” (USDS, 2007).

Human trafficking is a worldwide phenomenon, transcending national boundaries, responsible for the flow of thousands of women from one location to another, against their will, subject to rape, sexual harassment and assault, in an industry largely controlled by males. Survivors may spend the rest of their lives recovering from deep mental and physical wounds, suffering from PTSD, depression, or STDs.

The large numbers of females being trafficked for purposes of the sex industry each year attests to the fact that gender distinctions continue to be deeply entrenched in societies around the world. In a world dominated by matriarchies, where women are preferenced, even prized, such a horrid industry would likely be unfathomable. Arguably, with the current dominance of capitalism, wherein capital is privately owned, and goods and services are sold for a profit, females are not only objectified, but more easily marketed as commodities. Have years of female subordination in more subdued forms, such as segregation in the workplace, inequality in education, the media and families, opened the doors for this commodification of women?

An Individual Encounter with Gender as a Social Structure 

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It would be naïve to assume that gender inequality is a thing of the past, that by defining myself as a female the world presents equal opportunities to me as it would a male, that I can expect equal pay, and never expect to be reduced to an object.

Each time I go to a public restroom I am categorized. Am I the stick figure with a skirt or pants? Whenever I fill out a questionnaire or application I am forced to place myself in one of two boxes, male or female. As a young female I am told not to walk alone at night, to fear the very society in which I live because due to my sex I am more likely to be a victim of sexual harassment.

As I child, storybooks and movies told me that when I was older, I would get married to a member of the opposite sex, and have children. I would become a housewife and, as a female, would spend my time cooking, cleaning and taking care of the kids, all free of charge, which my husband spent the day at work. It wasn't long before I realized that I wasn't going to follow these prescribed directions.

Our social structure depicts such gendered narratives through various institutions and organizations. Yes, these values are deeply entrenched in societal workings. Yes, women continue to be objectified and discriminated against despite calls for equality. However, in taking a step outside of the picture, putting your sociological glasses on, and seeing, perhaps for the first time, the frame through which we view the very scenes in which we live, we can cultivate awareness of gender as a social structure.

Sources:
Newman, David (2012). Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life: 9th Edition. SAGE Publications. 

Hays, 2008: http://factsanddetails.com/Asian.php?itemid=2555&catid=62..

Anita Chen, Wall Street Journal, October 29, 1996
Rigg, Jonathan (1997).  Southeast Asia: The human landscape of modernization and development. London: Routledge
http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/third-world-women-factories
U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report: 2007.
U.S. Department of Justice, Assessment of U.S. Government Activities to Combat Trafficking in Persons: 2004.
http://www.cicatelli.org/titlex/downloadable/Human%20Trafficking%20Statistics.pdf